Mongolia Expansion
Introduction
Genghis Khan, the first Great Khan or “universal ruler” of the Mongol peoples, reigned from 1206 to 1227 and established the Mongol Empire (1206–1368). Genghis united the nomadic peoples of the Asian steppe to form an incredibly powerful force, characterized by its swift, agile, and well-coordinated horsemen. The empire’s territory expanded from the Black Sea to the Korean Peninsula. Because of their superior horsemanship and archery skills, the Mongols were able to easily beat armies from Iran, Russia, Eastern Europe, China, and elsewhere, establishing a hegemony over much of Central Asia and beyond[1]. This paper will analyze events that led to the reign of Genghis Khan which caused intense intellectual and spiritual questioning on upheavals like the use of Biological warfare.
Mongol Expansion
Because of their superior technology and large number of nomad troops, the Mongol Empire was able to expand throughout much of Asia. Back then, the land was everything for the nomadic farmers of Mongolia. Mongols were always on the move in search of fresh grass and water for their livestock herds of goats, sheep, and horses. The rapid loss of their livelihood is possible due to drought and disease. Genghis Khan relieved some of the anxiety. By establishing tax stability and rural cooperatives, he helped the Chinese peasant economy and brought together Mongolia’s warring tribes[2]. When he took power, he instituted a military-feudal system of law and order for his people. He took advantage of modern innovations like stirrups, composite bows, leather armor, and gunpowder, and he supported free trade and religious practice. Genghis Khan honored his most devoted troops with the greatest military force of their era.
Plague-The Black Death
The Black Death is a zoonotic illness caused by the gram-negative bacterium, Yersinia Pestis, whose main host is stray rodents. Black Death can cause death if not treated by affecting the whole body or lungs[3]. It is considered the worst plague in human history that was borne out of warfare and biological weaponry. The Black Death pandemic killed 30 to 60 percent of Europe’s inhabitants, which is about 750-200 million fatalities. This disease had been affecting people of Central Asia throughout the year 1331, and was hosted by fleas that live on rodents[4]. The rodents carried the disease from Asia along Silk Road to Crimea, as they were escaping famine. Their migration and the ongoing siege at Caffa led to the outburst of the pandemic. Soldiers who laid siege at Caffa city were infected by the plague, as if struck by lightning. They had lumps on their limbs, dark spots on their head and had a fever that neither god or doctors would treat[5].
Spread
The Black Death is thought to have spread to the rest of Europe as a consequence of biological warfare. In the middle of the fourteenth century, the Black Death ravaged most of the world, including Europe, the Near East, and North Africa. The shocking claims made about the pandemic are that the Mongol military tossed plague-infected cadavers into the besieged Crimean city of Caffa, spreading the disease to its people, and that escaping survivors of the assault transmitted the disease from Caffa towards the Mediterranean Area[6]. For instance, after the Caffa siege ended and the plague worsened, people fled from Caffa to Europe by ship carrying the disease with them and spreading it unconsciously in the areas they made stop[7]. If what has been described here is true, then Caffa must be remembered as the place where the most spectacular act of biological warfare occurred, with the Black Death as its tragic result.
Impressions
Christians believed that Black Death and the Mongolian attack was a punishment from God due to the sinful nature of man. They believed that the Caffa siege and the plague was the retribution God had intended for them in a divine apocalyptic speech[8]. This is why cried to God when the Tartar heathens attacked their city from all sides and laid a siege to starve them. The Christians had such an impression of the war and the plague since they had been attacked from a city, they deemed safe. There were speculations in other parts of Europe, for instance, some people thought individuals from another faith poisoned the reservoirs[9]. Other people blamed the poor air quality, while still others claimed the planets’ positions were to blame.
Impact on religion
The Black Death pandemic exposed the vulnerability of the Church to Christians. Religion used to be a vital part of people’s daily lives in the Middle Ages, due to the church. When the church failed to deal with the 1347 European pandemic, its prestige plummeted[10]. Many Christians lost faith in the church due to its ineffective methods of combating the epidemic[11]. Not even sacrament or prayer would stop the plague. In the end, many priests succumbed to the disease and the healthy ones abandoned their duties. Christians also abandoned their faith and openly criticized the church.
Changes
The Black Death had both positive and negative effects on the people of Eurasia. The pandemic gave rise to contemporary labor movements, advancements in medicine and a better outlook on life. Shakespeare creations for instance, and a large part of the Italian Renaissance were discovered after the plague[12]. Also, a recent study indicates that even after the devastating effects of the plague, Europeans who survived went on to enjoy longer lifespans. Skeletons in London’s graveyard from pre and post the first plague epidemic show that people’s overall mortality rate dropped after the pandemic. Both the West and the East were devastated by the epidemic. Many Mongol kings and other nobles were slaughtered, and the military and regional economies were crippled as a result[13].
Conclusion
The Black Death plague indicates the dangers of biological warfare. It is an illustration of the ugly experiences people underwent when man chose a biological weapon and others chose myths to explain a pandemic. Black Death plague was not a human creation. It was only used by man to fight of enemies during the Caffa siege. Moreover, Mongolians died from using the plague against their enemies and sabotaged air and wells that were needed by both parties. Their unchecked actions led to the further spread of the disease and death of millions. The spread of the pandemic also caused social and economic impacts. For instance, people left behind their loved ones, departed their cities, and isolated themselves from society as a whole. These events indicate that biological warfare is very detrimental and pandemics can cause more harm if not checked.
Bibliography
Bedyński, Wojciech. “Liminality: black death 700 years later; what lessons are for us from the medieval pandemic?.” Society Register 4, no. 3 (2020): 129-144.
Carus, W. Seth. A short history of biological warfare: from pre-history to the 21st century. Vol. 12. Government Printing Office, 2017.
Cohn, Samuel K. “The black death: the end of a paradigm.” In Power, Violence and Mass Death in Pre-Modern and Modern Times, pp. 25-66. Routledge, 2017.
Dietrich, Hans. “The transmission of the Black Death to western Europe: A critical review of the existing evidence.” Mediterranean Historical Review 32, no. 1 (2017): 25-39.
Putnam, Aaron E., David E. Putnam, Laia Andreu-Hayles, Edward R. Cook, Jonathan G. Palmer, Elizabeth H. Clark, Chunzeng Wang et al. “Little Ice Age wetting of interior Asian deserts and the rise of the Mongol Empire.” Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016): 33-50.
[1] Putnam, Aaron E., David E. Putnam, Laia Andreu-Hayles, Edward R. Cook, Jonathan G. Palmer, Elizabeth H. Clark, Chunzeng Wang et al. “Little Ice Age wetting of interior Asian deserts and the rise of the Mongol Empire.” Quaternary Science Reviews 131 (2016): 33-50.
[3] Cohn, Samuel K. “The black death: the end of a paradigm.” In Power, Violence and Mass Death in Pre-Modern and Modern Times, pp. 25-66. Routledge, 2017.
[5] Dietrich, Hans. “The transmission of the Black Death to western Europe: A critical review of the existing evidence.” Mediterranean Historical Review 32, no. 1 (2017): 25-39.
[6] Dietrich, Hans. “The transmission of the Black Death to western Europe: A critical review of the existing evidence.” Mediterranean Historical Review 32, no. 1 (2017): 25-39.
[8] Carus, W. Seth. A short history of biological warfare: from pre-history to the 21st century. Vol. 12. Government Printing Office, 2017.
[10] Bedyński, Wojciech. “Liminality: black death 700 years later; what lessons are for us from the medieval pandemic?.” Society Register 4, no. 3 (2020): 129-144.
[12] Mahoney, Emily, and Don Nardo. The black death: Bubonic plague attacks Europe. Greenhaven Publishing LLC, 2016.