WOUND HEALING

 

Wound healing refers to a dynamic process of replacing damaged and missing tissues with newly produced tissues. Healthy wounds are pink or red. Ischemia, low perfusion or infection result in dark granulation tissue. Wound healing occurs in four stages: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and maturation.

Hemostasis involves closure of the wound by clotting. During inflammation stage, bacteria, damaged cells and pathogens are removed from the site of the injury. Redness, heat, pain and swelling observed in this phase is due to the transportation of white blood cells, nutrients, growth factors and enzymes to the site.

Wound contraction occurs during the proliferative phase. New tissue is made of extracellular matrix and collagen. Besides, angiogenesis occurs to supply the granulation tissue with nutrients and oxygen. Maturation phase, also known as remodelling phase involves complete closure of the wound. Collagen is remodelled from type III to type V. Apoptosis also occurs to remove cells that are no longer needed.

Ananas comosus has traditionally been used in burn debridement. For this reason, further investigation of its wound healing properties is necessary.

 

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY

Any substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microbes is said to have antimicrobial activity. Substances that kill bacteria are referred to as bactericidal, whereas those that inhibit growth are bacteriostatic.

Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, rod-shaped, facultative anaerobic bacteria. It is a normal flora of the human intestines. It causes infections in the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract and pneumonia. Complications include thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hemolytic-uremic syndrome and hemorrhagic diarrhoea. Treatment majorly involves the use of antibiotics such as fluoroquinolones, nitrofurantoin and cotrimoxazole.

Streptococcus pyogenes is a gram-positive facultative bacteria. It causes various infections in humans, including cellulitis, pharyngitis, scarlet fever, tonsillitis, rheumatic fever, and lymphangitis. Complications include rheumatic fever, septic arthritis, pharyngitis and glomerulonephritis. It is susceptible to antibiotics such as penicillin, erythromycin, azithromycin and clindamycin.

MRSA is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that is resistant to common antibiotics like methicillin, oxacillin, amoxicillin and penicillin. It infects the skin, lungs, bloodstream and urinary tract. Complications include endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis and gangrene. Drugs used in the management of MRSA include vancomycin-first line, daptomycin–second line, linezolid–third line, tigecycline–fourth line and quinupristin/dalfopristin–fourth line.

All of the above bacteria are increasingly becoming resistant to the commonly used antibiotics hence need to develop newer agents. Therefore, further investigation of the microbial activity of Ananas comosus is essential.

 

ANANAS COMOSUS

Description

Ananas comosus belongs to the family Bromeliaceae. It is an evergreen, herbaceous, tropical and monocot perennial plant, 1-3 feet tall and spreads to cover an area of about 3-5 feet. The stem, which is centrally located, is about 25-50 cm long. It has a simple leaf which is linear in shape with parallel venation and a spiny margin. The leaves emerge from the soil, are spirally arranged and terminate in flowers which produce edible fruit. The blade length is about 18-36 inches. A mature Ananas comosus plant has about 80 leaves.

The plant flowers during summer to produce red flowers. The fruits are oval, fleshy and about 6-12 inches long. They are yellow or brown. The plant requires both the sun and shade for optimal growth and has a high drought tolerance. It is usually harvested approximately one and a half years after planting. It is very sensitive to pests and diseases.

Three main varieties of Ananas comosus have been identified. The varieties include, Ananas comosus var. comosus, Ananas comosus var. sativus and Ananas comosus var. lucidus. The sativus variety is seedless and propagation is through cuttings. Lucidus is the most common choice for farmers since it lacks spines.

The four main cultivars of Ananas comosus include, Smooth Cayenne, Abacaxi, Queen and Red Spanish. Unlike other bromeliads, Ananas comosus grows on land while most of the family members are either epiphytic or saxicolous. It is the only member of the family that produces edible fruits.

 

Common names

Ananas comosus is commonly referred to as pineapple in English, Nanasi in Swahili, Mananas in Luo and Kalenjin, Rinanasi in Kisii, Abacaxi in Portuguese and Ananas in French.

 

Habitat

Ananas comosus is a tropical plant. The rate of growth and fruit size depend on the growth environment. For optimum growth it requires a slightly acidic soil of pH4.5-5 although it can grow on different types of soil provided there is good aeration and drainage. It has high drought tolerance and for high yields annual rainfall of about 1000-1500mm is necessary though it can survive in areas receiving as little as 600mm. Sunlight is a key factor in Ananas comosus growth since the weight is directly proportional to the amount of sunlight received from planting to harvesting.

It is native to South America. However, it is currently cultivated in many countries including Thailand, Philippines, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and West Africa among others. The main producers are Brazil and United States of America.

 

Ethnobotanical uses

The plant has been used for long for various purposes, both medicinal and non-medicinal. It is a fruit consumed globally. Other uses include, brewing of wine, production of fiber, to induce menstruation, to induce abortion, to expel worms and kill parasitic amoebas. Furthermore, it has been used to reduce inflammation and in burns debridement.

 

Health benefits

Ananas comosus is a source of essential nutrients such as folate, iron, pyridoxine, thiamine, potassium, magnesium and Vitamin C, Vitamin K fats, carbohydrates and proteins. It eases digestion since it contains fibers thus can be used in the management of constipation. Bromelain also acts as a protease hence aiding in protein digestion. The fruit is an immune booster since it is rich in antioxidants and protect the body against pathogens that cause common cold and sinus infections. The antioxidants are majorly phenolic acids and flavonoids.

It is also an analgesic and anti- inflammatory and thus can be used to alleviate pain and inflammation in arthritis, post strenuous exercises, post-surgery and in dental procedures. In addition, it reduces macular degeneration hence improving eyesight and lowers blood sugar hence ideal for patients suffering from Diabetes mellitus.

The juice reduces the risk of thromboembolic disorders since it has shown to reduce coagulation of blood. It also has a diuretic property and aids in the formation of cartilage and connective tissues as it is rich in sulfur. Bromelain suppresses cancer in the gastric system, skin, colon and bile duct. Studies have shown that bromelain reduces the risk of colon cancer in rat models.

Other uses include, meat tenderization, flavoring in culinary dishes, cosmetics, ornament in interior décor, fodder. Fiber-Pina, a textile created from the fibers is used in making furnishings and wallpapers.

In most families the fruit is an ingredient in preparation of salads, smoothies, pizzas, burgers, desserts among others. They are sold fresh, frozen or canned.

Recommended dosage

Ananas comosus products are commercially available in capsule, tablet or liquid dosage forms. Most products contain 500mg of Bromelain and a dose of 500-1000mg daily is recommended.

Toxicity

Bromelain is associated with very low toxicity. However, the juice obtained from the unripe fruit can lead to severe vomiting. Some of the rare adverse effects include, skin rash, excess menstrual flow, nausea and diarrhea. Over consumption can lead to formation of fiber balls in the digestive tract.

Researchers have also documented that bromelain may potentiate the effects of some antibiotics like tetracycline and amoxicillin. Cross-reaction with celery, honeybee venom, papain, cypress pollen and olive tree pollen have also been reported.

 

Phytochemicals present in Ananas comosus

The fruit of Ananas comosus contains various phytochemicals like flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, steroids, phytate, glycosides

The leaf extract contains phenols, glycosides, carbohydrates, tannins, flavonoids and proteins. 4-methoxycinnamic acid, 4-hydroxypelargonic acid and 3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid have been identified using LC-MS. Ethyl isoallocholate and campesterol have been identified using GC-MS.

The plant also contains volatile constituents. The pulp and intact fruit contain hydrocarbons, carbonyl compounds, esters and alcohols. On the other hand, the crown is characterized by alcohols and aldehydes. Compounds responsible for the aroma of fresh pineapple include, ethyl acetate, ethyl butanoate, 2, 5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone, ethyl-2-methylbutanoate, ethyl hexanoate, methyl hexanoate, methyl butanoate and methyl propanoate.

 

 

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